Exodus

From Bible Exegesis

ek´sō̇-dus:

Exodus is the second book of the Torah (the Pentateuch) and also the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible), and the Christian Old Testament. The major events of the book concern the Exodus, a departure of Hebrew slaves from Egypt, under the leadership of Moses.

Jews call the book by its first words Ve-eleh shemoth (Hebrew: ואלה שמות) (i.e., "And these are the names") or simply "Shemoth" (שמות). The Septuagint designates the second book of the Pentateuch as "Exodus" (Greek: Εξοδος), meaning "departure" or "out-going". The Latin translation adopted the name, which passed into other languages. As a result of the theme of the first half of the book, the term "an exodus" has come to mean a departure of a great number of people.

Contents 1 Authorship 2 Sections 3 The Israelites and their escape from slavery (1-14) 4 The journey through the wilderness to Mount Sinai (13-18) 5 The Covenant and its Laws (19-24) 5.1 The Instructions for a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (25-31) 6 The golden calf, and regiving of the law (32-34) 7 The Construction of a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (35-40) 8 Dating 9 Meaning of Exodus 10 I. In General 11 II. Structure of the Book According to the Scriptures and According To Modern Analyses 12 III. Historical Character 13 IV. Authorship 14 Literature

Authorship

The book is the work of Moses himself. Exodus is the name given in the LXX. to the second book of the Pentateuch. It means “departure” or “outgoing.” This name was adopted in the Latin translation, and thence passed into other languages. The Hebrews called it by the first words, according to their custom, Ve-eleh shemoth (i.e., “and these are the names”).

It contains,

(1) An account of the increase and growth of the Israelites in Egypt (Exodus 1)

(2) Preparations for their departure out of Egypt (Exodus 2 - Exodus 12:36).

(3) Their journey from Egypt to Sinai (Exodus 12:37 - Exodus 19:2).

(4) The giving of the law and the establishment of the institutions by which the organization of the people was completed, the theocracy, “a kingdom of priest and an holy nation” (Exodus 19:3-40).

The time comprised in this book, from the death of Joseph to the erection of the tabernacle in the wilderness, is about one hundred and forty-five years, on the supposition that the four hundred and thirty years (Exodus 12:40) are to be computed from the time of the promises made to Abraham (Galatians 3:17).

The authorship of this book, as well as of that of the other books of the Pentateuch, is to be ascribed to Moses. The unanimous voice of tradition and all internal evidences abundantly support this opinion.

Sections

The book is generally broken into six sections:

The account of the growth of the Israelites into a peoples, their enslavement in Egypt, and eventual escape (1-12)

The journey from Egypt to Mount Sinai (13-18)

The formation of a covenant between YHWH and the people, and its associated laws (19-24) Intricate instructions for the construction of a tabernacle, priestly robes, and other ritual objects (25-31)

The episode of the golden calf, and the regiving of the law (32-34)

The construction of the tabernacle, priestly robes, and other ritual objects (35-40)

A major Chiastic structure runs throughout the second half of Exodus, centred on the episode of the golden calf.

The latter chapters of Genesis describe a great famine which had struck the Promised Land, causing the Israelites to relocate to Egypt. For their kinsman Joseph had risen to a position of great power there; thanks largely to his administrative skills, food in Egypt remained plentiful. Joseph persuades his entire extended family to come live under his protection so that he can support them for the duration of the famine.

Once the famine ends, however, the Israelites do not return to the Promised Land. Rather, they proceed to settle down in Egypt and remain there for many generations.

The Israelites and their escape from slavery (1-14)

Then a new Pharaoh, who knew not Joseph, becomes concerned about the military implications of the large increase in the Israelite population. He enslaves and oppresses them with forced labour, ordering the Hebrew midwives to kill all male babies. However, a daughter of Pharaoh finds the male infant of a Levite, calling him Moses (translating as drawn from the water). Moses is brought up as an Egyptian. As his past becomes revealed, (that he is actually an Israelite), he takes sympathy for one of the slaves that is being whipped by the guards. He kills the guard and buries his body in the sand.

To escape from pharaoh (the punishment for killing a man was death penalty), Moses flees the country. Moses' exile takes him to Midian, where he becomes shepherd to the priest Jethro and marries his daughter, Zipporah. As he feeds the sheep on Mount Horeb, God appears to him from a burning bush, which fails to turn to ash. YHWH orders Moses to demand the release of the Israelites from Pharaoh and gives him the power to perform two magical signs to show his authority. Aaron, mentioned for the first time and identified as Moses' brother, is appointed to assist him. On his return to Egypt, God tries to kill Moses, but Zipporah, at the inn, circumcises Moses' son, fulfilling the Abrahamic covenant and saving Moses' life. (1-4)

The Pharaoh refuses Moses' request and oppresses the people still further, ordering them to make bricks without straw. Moses subsequently complains to God, who announces to him that he will display his power to such an extent that the Pharaoh will be keen to send the Israelites away, even with all the jewelery of the Egyptians. The genealogy of Moses and his family appears at this point, rather than at the beginning of the story. (5-6)

God sends a series of plagues onto Egypt, each time acting through Moses. Since each one has respite, and the Egyptian magicians are capable of duplicating some of them, the pharaoh becomes increasingly stubborn (7-10). Finally, a great plague, killing all the firstborn, occurs, passing over the houses of the Israelites, since they have completed the passover ritual, marking their houses. Pharaoh consequently relents and is only too glad to get rid of the Israelites (11-12).

The journey through the wilderness to Mount Sinai (13-18)

The Exodus begins after Pharaoh's consent, and the Israelites leave Rameses to go to Succoth. The nobles of Egypt object to Pharaoh's consent, and so Pharaoh gathers together a large army to chase after the Israelites, who have by this point reached the Red Sea. Fortunately for the Israelites, they are divinely guarded, and are able to escape through the Red Sea, when Moses causes the waters to part. The waters collapse once the Israelites have passed, defeating Pharaoh, and the Israelites joyfully sing the Song of the Sea (13-14).

The Israelites continue their journey into the desert, and once in the Wilderness of Sin, they complain about the lack of food. Listening to their complaint, God sends them a shower of quail, and subsequently provides a daily shower of manna from heaven. Once at Rephidim, the thirst of the people gets to them, so water is miraculously provided from a rock. The Amalekites perform a sneak attack on the Israelites, and although Joshua manages to lead an army to vanquish them, God still orders an eternal war against Amalek (15-17). Jethro hears of Moses' approach, and visits him, advising Moses to appoint judges (18).

The Covenant and its Laws (19-24)

In the third month the Israelites arrive at Mount Sinai, and God announces, via Moses, that the Israelites are God's people, because he has liberated them by his omnipotence. The Israelites accept this call, and so, with thunder and lightning, clouds of smoke, and the noise of trumpets, God appears to them at the top of Mount Sinai (19).

God then announces a summarised moral law, the Ethical Decalogue (20). A more detailed Covenant Code is subsequently provided, concerning both ritual and civil law, and God promises Canaan to the Israelites if they obey, but warns against the paganism of its inhabitants (21-23). God calls Moses up into the mountain to receive a set of stone tablets containing the law, and further instructions (24).

The Instructions for a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (25-31)

Intricate instructions, forming one of the least readable portions of the Torah, are then given detailing the construction of a tabernacle, so that God can dwell permanently amongst the Israelites (25-28). These directions provide for a particularly extensive construction:

• The Ark of the Covenant, to contain the tablets
• A mercy seat, with two gilt cherubim either side, for God to sit at
• A menorah, never to be extinguished, and its oil
• A construction to contain these things, involving curtains for a roof, walls on silver feet, outer curtain, and a purple veil to separate the Holy of Holies, table, and menorah, from the remainder.
• The outer court, involving pillars on bronze pedestals, connected up by hooks and silver crossbars.

Instructions are also given for the garments of the priests (28):

• A shoulder-band (ephod), containing two onyx stones, each engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel
• A breastplate containing Urim and Thummim
• A Golden chains for holding the breastplate set with twelve specific precious stones, in four rows
• A robe for the ephod, with bells and pomegranates around the seam
• A coat
• A mitre
• A golden mitre]] plate with the inscription Holiness to the Lord
• A girdle

Following these instructions are details of the ritual to be used to ordain the priests, including robing, anointing, and seven days of sacrifices. There are also instructions for daily morning and evening offerings of a lamb (29). The specifications for construction of the tabernacle is then continued with directions for making a golden altar of incense, laver, anointing oil, and perfume (30). Bezaleel and Aholiab are identified, by God, as the appointed craftsmen to construct these things (31).

The golden calf, and regiving of the law (32-34)

Whilst Moses is up the mountain, the people become impatient and urge Aaron to make them a golden calf, which they worship with joy. God informs Moses that they have become idolatrous, threatening to abandon Israel, but Moses intercedes for them. However, when he comes down, he sees what they have done, and in anger smashes the two tablets of the law. After pronouncing judgment upon Aaron and the people Moses again ascends to God to implore forgiveness, and is successful (32-33). Moses consequently is commanded to make two new tablets on which God will personally write the commandments. God then gives the Ritual Decalogue, writing the ten commandments onto the tablets. Moses then returns to the people, who listen to him in respectful silence (34).

The Construction of a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (35-40)

Moses collects the congregation, enjoins upon them the keeping of the Sabbath, and requests gifts for the sanctuary. The entire people respond willingly, and under the direction of Bezaleel, and Aholiab, they complete all the instructions, for making the tabernacle, its contents, and the priestly robes, and the Israelites put it together on the first day of the second month (35-40). This section is almost, but not completely, a word for word copy of Chapters 25-31.

Dating

The time-span in this book, from the death of Joseph to the erection of the tabernacle in the wilderness, covers about one hundred and forty-five years, on the supposition that one computes the four hundred and thirty years (12:40) from the time of the promises made to Abraham (Galatians 3:17).

There have been several attempts to fix the date of the events in the book to a precise point on the Gregorian Calendar. These attempts generally rest on three considerations

Who the unnamed pharaoh was

The dates for non-biblical accounts of large numbers of semitic people leaving Egypt

The date that archaeology implies Jericho was destroyed

Generally, fixing the identification of the Pharaoh is considered the key, and two dynasties are usually suggested:

Thutmose III or Amenhotep II of the 18th Dynasty, around 1444 BC, favoured by religious scholars, since it precedes the destruction of Jericho, although some doubt surrounds the archaeological evidence supporting the Exodus and Canaanite conquest dating.

Ramses II or Merneptah of the 19th Dynasty, around 1290 BCE, favoured by a large minority of secular scholars, since it is relates the Semitic Israelites with the Semitic Hyksos, although this contradicts several key aspects of the biblical account, and neglects several recent archaeological discoveries in Tel el-Dab'a and Jericho.

Another, very reasonable identification by Ahmed Osman is the grandfather of Ramses II, Ramses I, as the Bible indirectly states that the Pharaoh died in the second year of his reign, among other well supported reasons. It also fits in with the date of the exiting of the Shasu from Egypt at the end of Ramesses I's reign, which are to be identified with both the Israelites and the Midyanites.

Meaning of Exodus

The great deliverance wrought for the children of Isreal when they were brought out of the land of Egypt with “a mighty hand and with an outstretched arm” (Exodus 12:51; Deuteronomy 26:8; Psalms 114; 136), about 1490 BC, and four hundred and eighty years (1 Kings 6:1) before the building of Solomon’s temple.

The time of their sojourning in Egypt was, according to Exodus 12:40, the space of four hundred and thirty years. In the LXX., the words are, “The sojourning of the children of Israel which they sojourned in Egypt and in the land of Canaan was four hundred and thirty years;” and the Samaritan version reads, “The sojourning of the children of Israel and of their fathers which they sojourned in the land of Canaan and in the land of Egypt was four hundred and thirty years.” In Genesis 15:13-16, the period is prophetically given (in round numbers) as four hundred years. This passage is quoted by Stephen in his defence before the council (Acts 7:6).

The chronology of the “sojourning” is variously estimated. Those who adopt the longer term reckon thus:

| Years | | From the descent of Jacob into Egypt to the | death of Joseph 71 | | From the death of Joseph to the birth of | Moses 278 | | From the birth of Moses to his flight into | Midian 40 | | From the flight of Moses to his return into | Egypt 40 | | From the return of Moses to the Exodus 1 | | 430

Others contend for the shorter period of two hundred and fifteen years, holding that the period of four hundred and thirty years comprehends the years from the entrance of Abraham into Canaan (see LXX. and Samaritan) to the descent of Jacob into Egypt. They reckon thus:

| Years | | From Abraham’s arrival in Canaan to Isaac’s | birth 25 | | From Isaac’s birth to that of his twin sons | Esau and Jacob 60 | | From Jacob’s birth to the going down into | Egypt 130 | | (215) | | From Jacob’s going down into Egypt to the | death of Joseph 71 | | From death of Joseph to the birth of Moses 64 | | From birth of Moses to the Exodus 80 | | In all... 430

During the forty years of Moses’ sojourn in the land of Midian, the Hebrews in Egypt were being gradually prepared for the great national crisis which was approaching. The plagues that successively fell upon the land loosened the bonds by which Pharaoh held them in slavery, and at length he was eager that they should depart. But the Hebrews must now also be ready to go. They were poor; for generations they had laboured for the Egyptians without wages. They asked gifts from their neighbours around them (Exodus 12:35), and these were readily bestowed. And then, as the first step towards their independent national organization, they observed the feast of the Passover, which was now instituted as a perpetual memorial. The blood of the paschal lamb was duly sprinkled on the door-posts and lintels of all their houses, and they were all within, waiting the next movement in the working out of God’s plan. At length the last stroke fell on the land of Egypt. “It came to pass, that at midnight Jehovah smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt.” Pharaoh rose up in the night, and called for Moses and Aaron by night, and said, “Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the children of Israel; and go, serve Jehovah, as ye have said. Also take your flocks and your herds, as ye have said, and be gone; and bless me also.” Thus was Pharaoh (q.v.) completely humbled and broken down. These words he spoke to Moses and Aaron “seem to gleam through the tears of the humbled king, as he lamented his son snatched from him by so sudden a death, and tremble with a sense of the helplessness which his proud soul at last felt when the avenging hand of God had visited even his palace.”

The terror-stricken Egyptians now urged the instant departure of the Hebrews. In the midst of the Passover feast, before the dawn of the 15th day of the month Abib (our April nearly), which was to be to them henceforth the beginning of the year, as it was the commencement of a new epoch in their history, every family, with all that appertained to it, was ready for the march, which instantly began under the leadership of the heads of tribes with their various sub-divisions. They moved onward, increasing as they went forward from all the districts of Goshen, over the whole of which they were scattered, to the common centre. Three or four days perhaps elapsed before the whole body of the people were assembled at Rameses, and ready to set out under their leader Moses (Exodus 12:37; Numbers 33:3). This city was at that time the residence of the Egyptian court, and here the interviews between Moses and Pharaoh had taken place.

From Rameses they journeyed to Succoth (Exodus 12:37), identified with Tel-el-Maskhuta, about 12 miles west of Ismailia. (See Pithom.) Their third station was Etham (q.v.), 13:20, “in the edge of the wilderness,” and was probably a little to the west of the modern town of Ismailia, on the Suez Canal. Here they were commanded “to turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea”, i.e., to change their route from east to due south. The Lord now assumed the direction of their march in the pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night. They were then led along the west shore of the Red Sea till they came to an extensive camping-ground “before Pi-hahiroth,” about 40 miles from Etham. This distance from Etham may have taken three days to traverse, for the number of camping-places by no means indicates the number of days spent on the journey: e.g., it took fully a month to travel from Rameses to the wilderness of Sin (Ex. 16:1), yet reference is made to only six camping-places during all that time. The exact spot of their encampment before they crossed the Red Sea cannot be determined. It was probably somewhere near the present site of Suez.

Under the direction of God the children of Israel went “forward” from the camp “before Pi-hahiroth,” and the sea opened a pathway for them, so that they crossed to the farther shore in safety. The Egyptian host pursued after them, and, attempting to follow through the sea, were overwhelmed in its returning waters, and thus the whole military force of the Egyptians perished. They “sank as lead in the mighty waters” (Exodus 15:1-9; comp. Psalms 77:16-19).

Having reached the eastern shore of the sea, perhaps a little way to the north of ‘Ayun Musa (“the springs of Moses”), there they encamped and rested probably for a day. Here Miriam and the other women sang the triumphal song recorded in Exodus 15:1-21.

From ‘Ayun Musa they went on for three days through a part of the barren “wilderness of Shur” (22), called also the “wilderness of Etham” (Numbers 33:8; comp. Exodus 13:20), without finding water. On the last of these days they came to Marah (q.v.), where the “bitter” water was by a miracle made drinkable.

Their next camping-place was Elim, where were twelve springs of water and a grove of “threescore and ten” palm trees (Exodus 15:27).

After a time the children of Israel “took their journey from Elim,” and encamped by the Red Sea (Numbers 33:10), and thence removed to the “wilderness of Sin” (to be distinguished from the wilderness of Zin, 20:1), where they again encamped. Here, probably the modern el-Markha, the supply of bread they had brought with them out of Egypt failed. They began to “murmur” for want of bread. God “heard their murmurings” and gave them quails and manna, “bread from heaven” (Exodus 16:4-36). Moses directed that an omer of manna should be put aside and preserved as a perpetual memorial of God’s goodness. They now turned inland, and after three encampments came to the rich and fertile valley of Rephidim, in the Wady Feiran. Here they found no water, and again murmured against Moses. Directed by God, Moses procured a miraculous supply of water from the “rock in Horeb,” one of the hills of the Sinai group (17:1-7); and shortly afterwards the children of Israel here fought their first battle with the Amalekites, whom they smote with the edge of the sword.

From the eastern extremity of the Wady Feiran the line of march now probably led through the Wady esh-Sheikh and the Wady Solaf, meeting in the Wady er-Rahah, “the enclosed plain in front of the magnificient cliffs of Ras Sufsafeh.” Here they encamped for more than a year (Numbers 1:1; Numbers 10:11) before Sinai (q.v.).

The different encampments of the children of Israel, from the time of their leaving Egypt till they reached the Promised Land, are mentioned in Exodus 12:37-19; Numbers 10-21; 33; Deuteronomy 1, 2, 10.

It is worthy of notice that there are unmistakable evidences that the Egyptians had a tradition of a great exodus from their country, which could be none other than the exodus of the Hebrews.

(NOTE: For the signs J (Jahwist), E (Elohist), P or Priestly Code (Priest Codex), R (Redactor) compare the article on Genesis.)

I. In General

1. Name

The second book of the Pentateuch bears in the Septuagint the name of Ἔξοδος, Éxodos, in the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 ad) accordingly Exodus, on the basis of the chief contents of the first half, dealing with the departure of the children of Israel out of Egypt. The Jews named the book after the first words: ואלּה שׁמות, we-'ēlleh shemōth (“and these are the names”), or sometimes after the first noun שׁמות, shemōth (“names”) a designation already known to Origen in the form of Οὐαλεσμώθ, Oualesmō̇tȟ.

2. Contents in General

In seven parts, after the Introduction (Exodus 1:1-7), which furnishes the connection of the contents with Genesis, the book treats of

(1) The sufferings of Israel in Egypt, for which mere human help is insufficient (Exodus 1:8 through Exodus 7:7), while Divine help through human mediatorship is promised;

(2) The power of YHWH, which, after a preparatory miracle, is glorified through the ten plagues inflicted on Pharaoh and which thus forces the exodus (Exodus 7:8 through Exodus 13:16);

(3) The love of YHWH for Israel, which exhibits itself in a most brilliant manner, in the guidance of the Israelites to Mount Sinai, even when the people murmur (Exodus 13:17 through Exodus 18:27);

(4) making the Covenant at Mount Sinai together with the revelation of the Ten Words (Exodus 20:1) and of the legal ordinances (Exodus 21:1) as the condition of making the Covenant (Exodus 19:1 through Exodus 24:18);

(5) The directions for the building of the Tabernacle, in which YHWH is to dwell in the midst of His people (Exodus 24:18 through Exodus 31:18);

(6) The renewal of the Covenant on the basis of new demands after Israel's great apostasy in the worship of the Golden Calf, which seemed for the time being to make doubtful the realization of the promises mentioned in (5) above (Exodus 32:1 through Exodus 35:3);

(7) The building and erection of the Tabernacle of Revelation (or Tent of Meeting) and its dedication by the entrance of YHWH (Exodus 35:4 through Exodus 40:38). As clearly as these seven parts are separated from one another, so clearly again are they most closely connected and constitute a certain progressive whole.

In the case of the last four, the separation is almost self-evident. The first three as separate parts are justified by the ten plagues standing between them, which naturally belong together and cause a division between that which precedes and that which follows. Thus in the first part we already find predicted the hardening of the heart of Pharaoh, the miracles of YHWH and the demonstrations of His power down to the slaying of the firstborn, found in the 2nd part (compare Exodus 2:23 through Exodus 7:7).

In part 3, the infatuation of Pharaoh and the demonstration of the power of YHWH are further unfolded in the narrative of the catastrophe in the Red Sea (Exodus 14:4, Exodus 14:17). Further the directions given with reference to the Tabernacle (Exodus 25 through 31 taken from P) presuppose the Decalogue (from E); compare e.g. Exodus 25:16, Exodus 25:21; Exodus 31:18; as again the 6th section (Exodus 32ff) presupposes the 5th part, which had promised the continuous presence of God (compare Exodus 32:34 J; Exodus 33:3, Exodus 33:5, Exodus 33:7 JE; Exodus 33:12, Exodus 33:14-17 J; Exodus 34:9 J, with Exodus 25:8; Exodus 29:45 f P; compare also the forty days in Exodus 34:28 J with those in Exodus 24:18 P) as in Exodus 34:1, Exodus 34:28 J and Exodus 34:11-27 J refers back to the 4th part, namely, Exodus 20:1 E; Exodus 21:1 E; Exodus 24:7 JE (Decalogue; Books of the Covenant; Making the Covenant). In the same way the last section presupposes the third, since the cloud in Exodus 40:34 P is regarded as something well known (compare Exodus 13:21 f JE; Exodus 14:19 E and J, Exodus 14:24 J) . The entire contents of the Book of Exodus are summarized in an excellent way in the word of God to Israel spoken through Moses concerning the making of the covenant: “Ye have seen what I did unto the Egyptians, and how I bare you on eagles' wings, and brought you unto myself. Now therefore, if ye will obey my voice indeed, and keep my covenant, then ye shall be mine own possession from among all peoples: for all the earth is mine: and ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation” (Exodus 19:4-6). Here reference is made to the powerful deeds of God done to the Egyptians, to His deeds of lovingkindness done to Israel in the history of how He led them to Sinai, to the selection of Israel, and to the conditions attached to the making of the covenant, to God's love, which condescended to meet the people, and to His holiness, which demands the observance of His commandments; but there is also pointed out here the punishment for their transgression. The whole book is built on one word in the preface to the ten commandments: “I am YHWH thy God, who brought thee out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage” (Exodus 20:2 E; compare Exodus 29:45 f P).

3. Connection with the Other Books of the Pentateuch

The events which are described in the Book of Exodus show a certain contrast to those in Genesis. In the first eleven chapters of this latter book we have the history of mankind; then beginning with Genesis 11:27, a history of families, those of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. In Exodus we have following this the beginning of the history of the chosen people. Then there is also a long period of time intervening between the two books. If Israel was 430 years in Egypt (compare Exodus 12:40 f P; also Genesis 15:13 J; see III, 4 below), and if the oppression began during the long reign of the predecessors of the Pharaoh, during whose reign Israel left the country (Exodus 2:23; Exodus 1:8), then, too, several centuries must have elapsed between the real beginning of the book (x Exodus 1:8), and the conclusion of Genesis. Notwithstanding these differences, there yet exists the closest connection between the two books. Exodus 1:1-7 connects the history of the people as found in Exodus with the family history of Genesis, by narrating how the seventy descendants of Jacob that had migrated to Egypt (compare Exodus 1:5; Genesis 46:27) had come to be the people of Israel, and that God, who offers Himself as a liberator to Moses and the people, is also the God of those fathers, of whom Genesis spoke (compare Exodus 3:6 JE; Exodus 3:13 E; Exodus 3:15 f R; Exodus 4:5 J; Exodus 6:3 P). Indeed, His covenant with the fathers and His promises to them are the reasons why He at all cares for Israel (Exodus 2:24 P; Exodus 6:8 P; Exodus 33:1 JE), and when Moses intercedes for the sinful people, his most effective motive over against God is found in the promises made to the patriarchs (Exodus 32:13 JE).

As is the case with Genesis, Exodus stands in the closest connection also with the succeeding books of the Pentateuch. Israel is certainly not to remain at Sinai, but is to come into the promised land (Exodus 3:17 JE; Exodus 6:8 P; Exodus 23:20 JE; Exodus 32:34 J; Exodus 33:1 JE; Exodus 33:12 J; Exodus 34:9 J and D; compare also the many ordinances of the Books of the Covenant, Exodus 21:1 E; Exodus 34:11 D and J). In this way the narratives of the following books, which begin again in Numbers 10:11 P and JE with the story of the departure from Sinai, continue the history in Exodus. But the legislation in Leviticus also is a necessary continuation and supplement of the Book of Exodus, and is prepared for and pointed to in the latter. The erection of the burnt-offering altar (Exodus 27:1; Exodus 38:1), as well as the mention made of the different kinds of sacrifices, such as the burnt sacrifices and the sin offering (Exodus 29:18, Exodus 29:14) and of the heave offering (Exodus 29:28), point to the promulgation of a law of sacrifices such as we find in Lev 1 through 7. The directions given in regard to the consecration of the priests (Exodus 29) are carried out in Leviticus 8 f. The indefinite commands of Exodus 30:10 in reference to the atonement on the horn of the incense altar once every year renders necessary the special ritual of the Day of Atonement in Lev 16 as its supplement. The more complete enlargement in reference to the shewbread mentioned in Exodus 25:30 is found in Leviticus 24:5-9; and even the repetitions in references to the candlesticks (Exodus 25:31; Leviticus 24:1-4; Numbers 8:1-4), as also the tāmīdh (“continuous”) sacrifices (compare Numbers 28:3-8 with Exodus 29:38-42), point to a certain connection between Exodus and the following books. How close the connection between Deuteronomy and Exodus is, both in regard to the historical narratives and also to their legal portions (compare the Decalogue and the Books of the Covenant), can only be mentioned at this place.

4. Significance of These Events for Israel

When we remember the importance which the exodus out of Egypt and the making of the covenant had for the people of Israel, and that these events signalized the birth of the chosen people and the establishment of theocracy, then we shall understand why the echo of the events recorded in Exodus is found throughout later literature, namely, in the historical books, in the preaching of the prophets and in the Psalms, as the greatest events in the history of the people, and at the same time as the promising type of future and greater deliverances. But as in the beginning of the family history the importance of this family for the whole earth is clearly announced (Genesis 12:1-3), the same is the case here too at the beginning of the history of the nation, perhaps already in the expression “kingdom of priests” (Exodus 19:6), since the idea of a priesthood includes that of the transmission of salvation to others; and certainly in the conception 'first-born son of YHWH' (Exodus 4:22), since this presupposes other nations as children born later.

The passages quoted above are already links connecting this book with Christianity, in the ideas of a general priesthood, of election and of sonship of God. We here make mention of a few specially significant features from among the mass of such relationships to Christianity.

5. Connecting Links for Christianity

How great a significance the Decalogue, in which the law is not so intimately connected with what is specifically Jewish and national, as e.g. in the injunctions of the Priest Codex, according to the interpretation of Christ in Matthew 5, has attained in the history of mankind! But in Matthew 5:17 Jesus has vindicated for the law in all its parts an everlasting authority and significance and has emphasized the eternal kernel, which accordingly is to be assigned to each of these legal behests; while Paul, on the other hand, especially in Romans, Galatians and Colossians, emphasizes the transitory character of the law, and discusses in detail the relation of the Mosaic period to that of the patriarchs and of the works of the law to faith, while in 2 Corinthians 3 he lauds the glory of the service in the spirit over that of the letter (compare Exodus 34) - an idea which in reference to the individual legal institutions is also carried out in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Compare on this subject also the articles Leviticus and Day Of Atonement. Then too the Passover lamb was a type of Jesus Christ (compare e.g. 1 Corinthians 5:7; John 19:36; 1 Peter 1:19). In Exodus 12 the Passover rite and the establishment of the covenant (Exodus 24:3-8) arc found most closely connected also with the Lord's Supper and the establishment of the New Covenant. In the permanent dwelling of God in the midst of His people in the pillar of fire and in the Tabernacle there is typified His dwelling among mankind in Christ Jesus (John 1:14) and also the indwelling of the Holy Ghost in the Christian congregation (1 Peter 2:5; Ephesians 4:12) and in the individual Christian (1 Corinthians 3:16; 1 Corinthians 6:19; 2 Corinthians 6:16; John 14:23). The Apocalypse particularly is rich in thought suggested by the exodus out of Egypt. Unique thoughts in reference to the Old Testament are found in the conceptions that the law was given through angels (Acts 7:53; Galatians 3:19; Hebrews 2:2); further that the rock mentioned in Exodus 17:6 followed, and was Christ (1 Corinthians 10:4); and that in Hebrews 9:4 the real connection of the altar of incense with the Holy of Holies appears as changed into a local connection (Exodus 40:26, Exodus 40:27), while the idea found in [[Hebrews 9:4 that the manna was originally in the Ark of the Covenant, is perhaps not altogether excluded by Exodus 16:33; and the number 430 years, found in Galatians 3:17, probably agrees with Exodus 12:40, Exodus 12:41, in so far as the whole of the patriarchal period could be regarded as a unit (compare on the reading of the Septuagint in Exodus 12:40, Exodus 12:41, III, 4 below).

II. Structure of the Book According to the Scriptures and According To Modern Analyses

In the following section

(a) serves for the understanding of the Biblical text;

(b) is devoted to the discussion and criticism of the separation into sources.

1. In General

(a) The conviction must have been awakened already by the general account of the contents given in I, 2 above, that in the Book of Exodus we are dealing with a rounded-off structure, since in seven mutually separated yet intimately connected sections, one uniform fundamental thought is progressively carried through. This conviction will only be confirmed when the details of these sections are studied, the sections being themselves again organically connected by one leading thought. Since, in addition, the Book of Genesis is clearly divided into ten parts by the ten tōledhōth (“generations”) (compare also the division made by typical numbers in articles Leviticus and Day Of Atonement), thus too the number seven, as itself dividing the Book of Exodus into seven parts, is probably not accidental; and this all the less, as in the subordinate parts too, a division is to be found according to typical numbers, this in many cases appearing as a matter of course, and in other cases traced without difficulty, and sometimes lying on the surface (compare 10 plagues, 10 commandments). Yet in all of the following investigations, as is the case in the articles Genesis, Leviticus and Day Of Atonement, the demonstration of the fundamental thought must be the main thing for us. The division according to typical numbers is to be regarded merely as an additional confirmation of the literary unity of the book. We refer here first of all to a number of cases, where certain numbers independently of the separate chief parts combine the Biblical text into a unity. In Numbers 14:22 R, YHWH states that Israel had now tempted Him and been disobedient to Him ten times: compare Exodus 14:11 JE(?) (Red Sea); Exodus 15:23 f JE (Marah); Exodus 16:2, Exodus 16:3 P; Exodus 16:20 JE; Exodus 16:27, Exodus 16:28 R (Manna); Exodus 17:1 JE (Massah and Meribah); Exodus 32:1 JE (Golden Calf); Numbers 11:1 JE (Tuberah); Numbers 11:4 JE (Graves of Lust); Numbers 14:2 P and JE (Spies). Most of these cases are accordingly reported in the Book of Exodus, but in such manner that in this particular a clearly marked progress can be noticed, as YHWH does not begin to punish until Exodus 32; but from here on He does so with constantly increasing severity, while down to Exodus 32 grace alone prevails, and in this particular, previous to Ex 32, there is found nothing but a warning (Exodus 16:27). Ten times it is further stated of Pharaoh, in a great variety of forms of expression, that he hardened his own heart (Exodus 7:13 P; Exodus 7:14 JE; Exodus 7:22 P; Exodus 8:15 P; Exodus 8:32 JE; Exodus 9:7, Exodus 9:34, Exodus 9:35 JE; Exodus 13:15 D); ten times the hardening is ascribed to God (Exodus 4:21 JE; Exodus 7:3 P; Exodus 9:12 P; Exodus 10:1 R; Exodus 10:20 JE; Exodus 10:27 E; Exodus 11:10 R; Exodus 14:4, Exodus 14:8 P; 17 P ?). Here already we must note that within the narrative of the miracles and the plagues at first there is mention made only of the hardening by Pharaoh himself (Exodus 7:13 P; Exodus 7:14 JE; Exodus 7:22 P; Exodus 8:11; Exodus 8:15 P; Exodus 8:28 JE; Exodus 9:7 JE, i.e. seven times) before a single word is said that God begins the hardening; and this latter kind of hardening thereupon alone concludes the whole tragedy (Exodus 14:4, Exodus 14:8 P; 17 P?). Ten months cover the time from the arrival at Sinai (Exodus 19:1 P) to the erection of the sacred dwelling-place of God (Exodus 40:17 P). Since, further, exactly three months of this time are employed in Exodus 19:10, Exodus 19:16 JE; Exodus 24:3 JE; Exodus 24:16 P (ten days); Exodus 24:18 P (40 days); Exodus 34:28 J (40 days), there remain for the building of the tabernacle exactly seven months.

(b) What has been said does anything but speak in favor of the customary division of Exodus into different sources. It is generally accepted that the three sources found in Genesis are also to be found in this book; in addition to which a fourth source is found in Exodus 13:3-16, of a Deuteronomistic character. It is true and is acknowledged that the advocates of this hypothesis have more difficulties to overcome in Exodus than in Genesis, in which latter book too, however, there are insufficient grounds for accepting this view, as is shown in the article Genesis. Beginning with Ex 6 the chief marks of such a separation of sources falls away as far as P and J are concerned, namely, the different uses of the names of God, Elohim and YHWH. For, according to the protagonists of the documentary theory, P also makes use of the name YHWH from this chapter on; E, too, does the same from Exodus 3:13 on, only that, for a reason not understood, occasionally the word Elohim is still used by this source later on, e.g. Exodus 13:17; Exodus 18:1. But as a number of passages using the name Elohim are unhesitatingly ascribed by the critics to J, this difference in the use of the name of God utterly fails to establish a difference of sources. To this is to be added, that J and E are at this place closely interwoven; that, while the attempt is constantly being made to separate these two sources, no generally accepted results have been reached and many openly acknowledge the impossibility of such a separation, or admit that it can be effected only to a very limited extent. Peculiarities which are regarded as characteristic of the different sources, such as the sin of Aaron in J, the staff of Moses in E, Sinai in J and the Priestly Code (P), Horeb in E, the dwelling of the Israelites in Goshen in J, but according to E their living in the midst of the Egyptians, and others, come to nought in view of the uniform text in the passages considered. This has been proved most clearly, e.g. by Eerdmans in his Alttestamentliche Studien, III (“Das Buch Exodus”) in regard to many of these passages. Narratives of a similar character, like the two stories in which Moses is described as striking the rock to produce water (Exodus 17:1; Numbers 20:1), are not duplicates, but are different events. Compare the different localities in Exodus 17:7 and Numbers 20:1, as also the improbability that Israel would without cause in the first passage have put into permanent form the story of its shame, and then in the latter there would have been an uncertainty as to the importance of this locality for the career of Moses; and finally, we must notice the distinction expressly made by the additional statement, “waters of Meribah of Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin,” in [[Numbers 27:12-14; Deuteronomy 32:51 (compare Ezekiel 47:19; Ezekiel 48:28). Then, too, these occurrences, if we accept the division into J and E at this place, are not reduced to a single event, since both sources would share in both narratives. The same condition of affairs is found in Exodus 16 in so far as JE comes into consideration, and in Exodus 18 in comparison with Nu 11. In the case of Numbers 11 there is express reference made to a former narrative by the word “again” and in the second case all the details in their differences point to different occurrences. Concerning other so-called duplicates in Ex, see later in this article. But the acceptance of P in contradistinction to the text of JE does also not lead to tangible results, notwithstanding that there exists a general agreement with regard to the portions credited to P. Not taking into consideration certain that are peculiar, the following sections are attributed to this source: Exodus 1:1-7, Exodus 1:13-15; Exodus 2:23-25; Exodus 6:2 through Exodus 7:13 (Exodus 6:28-30 R); [[Exodus 7:19, Exodus 7:20, Exodus 7:21, Exodus 7:22; Exodus 8:1-3, [[Exodus 8:11-15; Exodus 9:8-12; Exodus 12:1-20, [[Exodus 12:28, Exodus 12:37, Exodus 12:40-50; [[Exodus 13:1-2, Exodus 13:20; Exodus 14:1-4, Exodus 14:8-10, Exodus 14:15-18?, 21aa, 22-23, 19; [[Exodus 16:1-3, Exodus 16:1-14, Exodus 16:15-18, Exodus 16:21-26, Exodus 16:31-32, Exodus 16:34, Exodus 16:35; Exodus 17:1; Exodus 19:1, Exodus 19:2; 24:15]] through Exodus 31:17; Exodus 34:29 through Exodus 40:38. It is claimed that in the Book of Genesis these sources constitute the backbone of the whole work; but this is not claimed for Ex. The sections ascribed to P constitute in this place, too, anything but an unbroken story. In both language and substance they are, to a certain extent, most closely connected with the parts ascribed to JE, and in part they are indispensable for the connection whence they have been taken (compare for details below). It is absolutely impossible to separate on purely philological grounds in the purely narrative portions in Exodus the portions belonging to P. That genealogies like Exodus 6:14, or chronological notices like Exodus 12:40, Exodus 12:41, Exodus 12:51; Exodus 16:1; Exodus 19:1, or directions for the cults like Exodus 12; 25ff have their own peculiar forms, is justified by self-evident reasons; but this does not justify the acceptance of separate authors. It is the result of the peculiar matter found in each case. We must yet note that the passages attributed to P would in part contain views which could not be harmonized with theological ideas ascribed to this source, which are said to include an extreme transcendental conception of God; thus in Exodus 16:10 the majesty of YHWH suddenly appears to the congregation, and in Exodus 40:34 this majesty takes possession of the newly erected dwelling. In Exodus 8:19 mention is made of the finger of God, and in Exodus 7:1 Moses is to be as God to Pharaoh. In [[Exodus 12:12 the existence of the Egyptian gods is presupposed and the heathen sorcerers are able to act in competition with Moses and Aaron for a while; Exodus 7:11, Exodus 7:12, Exodus 7:22; Exodus 8:3. P also describes the Passover, which on account of the handling of the blood in [[Exodus 12:7 cannot be regarded in any other light than as a sacrifice in the house, and in Numbers 9:7, Numbers 9:13, this act is expressly called a ḳorban YHWH ('sacrifice of YHWH'). Compare also the commands in Exodus 12:10, Exodus 12:43, Exodus 12:18. But more than anything else, what has been said under (a) above goes to show that all these sources have been united in a way that characterizes the work of a systematic writer, and declares against any view that would maintain that these sources have been mechanically placed side by side and interwoven into each other. What has here been outlined for the whole book in general must now be applied to the different parts in particular.

2. In the Separate Pericopes

(1) Exodus 1:8 Through 7:7

(a) Everything that is narrated in this section, which in so worthy a manner introduces the whole book, is written from a standpoint of the Egyptian oppression, from which human help could give no deliverance, but from which the mighty power of YHWH, working through human agency, offered this deliverance. It is a situation which demands faith (Exodus 4:31). This section naturally falls into ten pericopes, of which in each instance two are still more closely connected. Numbers 1 and 2 (Numbers 1:8-14, Numbers 1:15-22), namely, the oppression through forced labor and the threat to take the life of the newly born males of the Israelites; and in contrast to this, the Divine blessing in the increase of the people in general and of the midwives in particular; numbers 3 and 4 ([[Exodus 2:1-10, Exodus 2:11-22), namely, the birth and youth of Moses stand in contrast. The child seems to be doomed, but God provides for its deliverance. Moses, when grown to manhood, tries to render vigorous assistance to his people through his own strength, but he is compelled to flee into a far-off country. Numbers 5 and 6 (Exodus 2:23 through Exodus 4:17; Exodus 4:18-31) report the fact that also in the reign of a new Pharaoh the oppression does not cease, and that this causes God to interfere, which in Exodus 2:23-25 is expressed in strong terms and repeatedly, and this again leads to the revelation in the burning bush ([[Exodus 3:1). And at the same time the narrative shows how little self-confidence Moses still had (Three signs, a heavy tongue, direct refusal). The sixth pericope and also the beginning of the last four, describe, from an external viewpoint, the return of Moses to Midian, and his journey from there to Egypt. Here, too, mention is made of the troubles caused by Pharaoh, which God must remove through His power. This deliverance is not at all deserved by Israel, since not even any son in a family had up to this time been circumcised. On the other hand, everything here is what can be expected. Those who sought the life of Moses had died; the meeting with Aaron at the Mount of the Lord; in Egypt the faith of the people. In an effective way the conclusion (Exodus 4:31) returns to the point where the two companion narratives (Exodus 2:24 f) begin. After this point, constituting the center and the chief point in the introductory section, numbers 7 and 8 (Exodus 5:1 through Exodus 6:1; Exodus 6:2-12), everything seems to have become doubtful. Pharaoh refuses to receive Moses and Aaron; the oppression increases; dissatisfaction in Israel appears; Moses despairs; even the new revelations of God, with fair emphasis on fidelity to the Covenant which is to unfold YHWH's name in full, are not able to overcome the lack of courage on the part of the people and of Moses. Numbers 9 and 10, introduced by Exodus 6:13 (Exodus 6:14-27 and Exodus 6:28 through Exodus 7:7), show that after Moses and Aaron have already been mentioned together in Exodus 4:14, Exodus 4:27; Exodus 5:1, and after it has become clear how little they are able of themselves to accomplish anything, they are now here, as it were, for the first time, before the curtain is raised, introduced as those who in the following drama are to be the mediators of God's will (compare the concluding verses of both pericopes, Exodus 6:27; Exodus 7:7), and they receive directions for their common mission, just at that moment when, humanly speaking, everything is as unfavorable as possible.

(b) The unity of thought here demonstrated is in this case too the protecting wall against the flood-tide of the documentary theory. For this theory involves many difficulties. In Exodus 1:13 f there would be an account of the oppression by the Priestly Code (P), but the motive for this can be found only in the preceding verses, which are ascribed to JE; Exodus 2:24 speaks of the Covenant of God With Isaac, concerning which P is said to have reported nothing in the Book of Genesis, as in the latter book a reference to this matter is found only in Genesis 26:2-5 R; Genesis 26:24 J. In Exodus 6:2 Moses and Aaron are mentioned; but as the text of P reads we know absolutely nothing from this source as to who these men are. According to Exodus 7:1 Aaron is to be the speaker for Moses before Pharaoh. But according to P neither Moses nor Aaron speaks a single word. The omissions that are found by critics in documents J and E - which, if they are separated, have lines of demarcation claimed for the separation that are very unsettled - we here pass over in silence.

On the critical theory, the narratives of the Priestly Code (P), in the Book of Ex, as also in Gen, would have discarded many of the stereotyped formulas characteristic of this source (compare Exodus 2:23; Exodus 6:2; Exodus 7:1), and in both form and contents would be made very similar to the rest of the text Exodus 1:9, Exodus 1:10, Exodus 1:12 JE; Exodus 1:20 E; Exodus 7:1 P; and to a great extent expressions similar to these are here found and in part refer to these. The same must be said concerning Exodus 3:7 JE in its relation to Exodus 2:23 P; Exodus 6:6 (sibhlōth) P in its relation to Exodus 1:11 JE; [[Exodus 2:11 E; Exodus 5:4, Exodus 5:5 JE (in contrast Exodus 1:13, Exodus 1:14; Exodus 2:23). JE, in Exodus 4:9 for “dry land,” makes use of the term ha-yabbāshāh, which in Genesis 1:9 f and Exodus 14:16 is ascribed to the Priestly Code (P), and a different expression is used for this thought by J in Genesis 7:22. In reference to Exodus 7:1 P compare Exodus 4:14 E (?). In reference to the hardening of Pharaoh, which is found in all the sources (Exodus 7:3 P), see above under 1a; in reference to the miracles, and their purpose of making YHWH known to the Egyptians (Exodus 7:3-5 P) see the following paragraph. The four generations mentioned in Exodus 7:14 P find their parallel in Genesis 15:16 J (compare [[Genesis 46:8); and the sons of Aaron mentioned in Exodus 6:23 the Priestly Code (P), Nadab and Abihu, are mentioned also in the text of Exodus 24:1, Exodus 24:9, ascribed to JE although, except in Lev 10 the Priestly Code (P), their names are not found elsewhere in the Pentateuch. In reference to the repetitions, it must be said that Exodus 1:13 P is either the continuation (in so far as the Israelites instead of being compulsory laborers became slaves), or is a concluding summary, such as is found frequently. The new revelation of God in Exodus 6 the Priestly Code (P), according to chapter 3 JE, finds its psychological and historical motive in the account of the failure described in Exodus 5:1 JE, and in the discouragement of the Israelites and of Moses resulting therefrom. In the same way the renewed mention by Moses of his difficulties of speech (Exodus 6:12 P; compare with Exodus 4:10 J and E (?)) is very characteristic of human ways, and this again necessitates the twice repeated consideration of this matter by God (Exodus 6:30 R; Exodus 4:10 J and E (?); concerning the names of God, see Genesis; Names Of God).

One difficulty, which is also not made clear by the proposed division of sources, is found in the name of the father-in-law of Moses; since according to Exodus 2:18 J, this name is Reuel, and according to Exodus 3:1; Exodus 18:1 JE, it is Jethro (Exodus 4:18 E in the form “Jether”); in Numbers 10:29 JE is called Hobab and a son of Reuel (the King James Version “Raguel”) for all of these passages are ascribed to J or E. It is probable that the name Jethro is a title (“Excellency”); and as for the rest, in Numbers 10:29 ḥōthēn probably does not mean father-in-law but brother-in-law (Judges 1:16; Judges 4:11); or in Exodus 2:18 we find father and in Exodus 2:21 daughter in the place of grandfather and granddaughter; otherwise we should be compelled to accept different traditions, by which view, however, the Mosaic authorship of Exodus would be made impossible (compare IV, below).

(2) Exodus 7:8 Through 13:16

(a) This section is separated as a matter of course from the rest by the typical number of ten plagues. It is introduced by the transformation of the rod into a serpent in the presence of Pharaoh (Exodus 7:8-13). To explain the fact that there were ten plagues on the ground of the accidental combination of sources, is from the very outset a precarious undertaking. To this must be added the following reasons that indicate a literary editing of the material. All of the plagues are introduced by the same formula ([[Exodus 7:12 JE; Exodus 8:1 J; Exodus 8:12 P; Exodus 8:16 JE; Exodus 8:20 JE; Exodus 9:1 JE; Exodus 9:8 P; Exodus 9:13 JE; Exodus 10:1, Exodus 10:12 JE; Exodus 10:21 E; Exodus 11:1 E), and in connection with each plague the hardening of the heart of Pharaoh is mentioned (compare (1a) above); compare Exodus 7:22 P; Exodus 8:11 J; Exodus 8:15 P; [[Exodus 8:28 JE; Exodus 9:7 JE; Exodus 9:12 P; Exodus 9:34 JE; Exodus 9:35 JE; Exodus 10:1 R; Exodus 10:20 JE; Exodus 10:27 E; Exodus 11:10 R; Exodus 13:15 D. As is the case in the first section, we find here too in each instance two plagues more closely connected, namely, numbers 1 and 2 already externally united by the double address of YHWH (compare Exodus 7:14 JE; Exodus 7:19 P and Exodus 7:26 J; Exodus 8:1 P), but also by the methods of punishment that are related to each other (water changed to blood and frogs); and, finally, by the extension of the plague (the Nile and beyond the river). In 3 and 4 we have to deal with insects (stinging flies and dung flies); in 5 and 6 with a kind of pest (pest among cattle, and boils); 7 and 8 are again formally joined by the repeated command of YHWH to Moses in Exodus 9:13, Exodus 9:12 JE and Exodus 10:1, Exodus 10:12 JE, as also by the fullness of the account the two show and their similarity, in both also use being made of the staff (Exodus 9:23 f JE; Exodus 10:13 f JE), in the repetition of the emphasis put on the remarkable character of the plague (Exodus 9:18, Exodus 9:24; Exodus 10:6, Exodus 10:14 JE). By both plagues vegetation is destroyed; and in the plague of locusts special reference is made also to the hail (compare Exodus 10:5, Exodus 10:12, Exodus 10:15). In the case of 9 and 10, the darkness constitutes a connecting link (compare Exodus 10:21 E; Exodus 11:4 J; Exodus 12:12 P; Exodus 12:30, Exodus 12:31 JE). By the side of the occasional rhythm formed of two members there is also one formed of three members (after the manner of a triole in a measure of two beats). In the case of each group of three plagues, two are announced beforehand (thus 1 JEP and 2 JP; 4 JE and 5 JE; 7 JE and 8 JE; 10 EJ over against 3 the Priestly Code (P), 6 P and 9 E); the first of each group of three plagues, as 1, 4 and 7, is to be announced by Moses on the following morning to Pharaoh (Exodus 7:15; Exodus 8:20; Exodus 9:13 JE). Also in regard to the impression caused by the plagues a distinct progress can be noticed, in this too, that the Egyptian sorcerers are active only down to the third plague. Naturally, too, over against these facts, further peculiarities can be pointed out in the separate plagues, e.g. the fact that Goshen, or rather that Israel, is spared in the 4th, 5th, 7th through 10th plagues (Exodus 8:22; Exodus 9:6, Exodus 9:26 JE; Exodus 10:23 E; Exodus 11:7 J); and in the mention made of the intercession in the 2nd, 4th, 7th, 8th (Exodus 8:8 J; Exodus 8:12; Exodus 9:28, Exodus 9:33; Exodus 10:17 f JE) without thereby destroying the artistic construction of the whole that has been described above, or that in each such case of individuality of presenting the matter there is to be found a reason for claiming a separate source.

(b) In the same way, too, it is not a permissible conclusion, that in the first miracle and in the first three plagues mention is made of the fact that Aaron performed this miracle with his staff (Exodus 7:8, Exodus 7:19; Exodus 8:5-20ff P). At any rate, in the parts ascribed to the Priestly Code (P), no absolute uniformity is to be found, since plagues 1 to 3 are commanded to Moses, while the 6th is commanded to Moses and Aaron (Exodus 7:19; Exodus 8:1, Exodus 8:20 over against Exodus 9:8]); and since, further, in the 6th plague (Exodus 9:8) it is Moses, and in the 10th (Exodus 12:12) it is God Himself who really carries out the command, and not Aaron, as was the case in the introductory miracles and in the first three plagues. Further, according to JE ([[Exodus 4:30]), it appears that the presupposition is that we are to consider all of the addresses and actions in general as taking place through Aaron, even in those cases where this is not especially mentioned.

Only the 1st plague (Exodus 7:14) furnishes an apparent reason for the acceptance of two sources. In this case mention is made at times of the waters of the Nile only, and then of all other waters being changed into blood; and a separation from this point of view at least could be carried through. But this possibility disappears at once in the case of the 2nd plague (frogs), where the passage Exodus 8:1-3, ascribed to the Priestly Code (P), which verses contain the consummation of the plague announced in 7:26-29 J (Hebrew), is altogether necessary for this connection; as otherwise the impression made upon Pharaoh by this plague, which is not mentioned in P at all, would be a torso. The similarity in the construction of the 2nd and the 1st plague, however (compare under (a) above), and the same difference in the mention made of the Nile and of the other waters in the 2nd plague, make it possible and even advisable in the case of the first plague, too, to discard the hypothesis of a difference in sources, because in the 2nd plague this difference cannot be carried out. Then, too, there would be other omissions found in P. According to the customary separation of sources, P would not contain the fulfillment of the threatened tenth plague announced in Exodus 12:12 at all. In the same way the statement in Exodus 12:28 refers to the carrying out of a command, the announcement of which to Israel in Exodus 12:21 would be found in another source. Further in Exodus 12:37 we would have the Priestly Code (P), as when the parts belonging to P have been eliminated, the other sources too would contain omissions in Exodus 12:21, mostly JE; [[Exodus 12:37 E; Exodus 13:3 D. In the same way the announcement of a large number of miracles (Exodus 7:3 P; Exodus 11:9 R) is too comprehensive, if these verses refer only to the narratives found in P. In addition, there is a remarkable similarity found in all of the narratives of P with those parts which are ascribed to JE; compare the first miracle in Exodus 7:8 with Exodus 4:2 J; Exodus 4:17 E. In the Priestly Code (P), too, as is the case with JE, it is stated that the purpose of the miracle is, that Pharaoh, or the Egyptians, or Israel, are to recognize that YHWH is God and the Lord of the earth, or something to this effect (Exodus 7:5 P; Exodus 7:17 JE; Exodus 8:10 R; Exodus 8:22; Exodus 9:14, Exodus 9:29, Exodus 9:30 JE; Exodus 10:2 R; Exodus 11:7 J; compare from the next section, Exodus 14:4 P; Exodus 14:18 the Priestly Code (P), which at the same time is also the fundamental thought that forms the connecting link of the whole section). The position of [[Exodus 11:1-3 E between Exodus 10:28, Exodus 10:29 E and Exodus 11:8 J constitutes a difficulty, because in the last-mentioned passages Moses is represented as standing continuously before Pharaoh. The announcement made by YHWH to Moses, that one more plague is to come, and that the Israelites should borrow articles of value from the Egyptians, must in reality have been made before, but for good reasons it is mentioned for the first time at this place, in order to explain the confident utterance of Moses, that he would not again appear before Pharaoh (Exodus 10:29). But the fact that according to Exodus 12:31 JE Pharaoh does in reality once more cause Moses and Aaron to be called, can readily be explained on the ground of the events that happened in the meantime.

The structure of Exodus 12 f contains nothing that could not have been written by one and the same author. Only Moses naturally did not at once communicate (Exodus 12:21) to the leading men of Israel the command given in Exodus 12:15 concerning the unleavened bread, which command had been given for later generations; and not until Exodus 13:3 is this command mentioned in connection with the order given to the people in the meantime concerning the firstborn (Exodus 13:1 f) . The further fact, that the story of the exodus reaches a preliminary conclusion in Exodus 12:42 before the details of the Passover (Exodus 12:3) have been given, is in itself justifiable. As far as contents are concerned, everything in chapters 12 f, namely, the exodus, the festival of unleavened bread, the firstborn, and orders pertaining thereto, that the month of the exodus is to be regarded as the first month, etc., are closely connected with the Passover and the 10th plague. Because the latter had to be described more fully than the other plagues, we find already in Exodus 11:9, [[Exodus 11:10, after the announcement of this plague and its results, a comprehensive notice concerning all the miracles through which YHWH demonstrated how He, amid great manifestations of power (Exodus 7:4 P) and with a mighty hand (Exodus 6:1 JE), has led His people forth.

(3) Exodus 13:17 Through 18:27

(a) This section finds its connecting thought in the emphasis placed on the love of YHWH, on His readiness to help, and His long-suffering in the leading of His at times murmuring people on the road to and as far as Sinai. This section covers two months. What is narrated, beginning with Exodus 16:1, transpires even within a single two weeks (compare Exodus 19:1). Number 1 (Exodus 13:17-22), describes the journey to Etham (out of love God does not lead the people the direct way, since He fears that they will become unfaithful in the event of a battle; Joseph's bones are taken along, since God now really is taking care of His people (compare Genesis 50:24, Genesis 50:26); YHWH's friendly presence is shown in the pillar of fire). Numbers 2 (Exodus 14:1-31) contains the passage through the Red Sea (YHWH the helper; compare Exodus 14:10, Exodus 14:15, Exodus 14:13, Exodus 14:14, Exodus 14:30, Exodus 14:21, Exodus 14:24, Exodus 14:26 f, 31, notwithstanding the murmuring of Israel, Exodus 14:11 f). Number 3 (Exodus 15:1) contains the thanksgiving hymn of Moses for YHWH's help, with which fact each one of the four strophes begins (Exodus 15:1, Exodus 15:6, Exodus 15:11, Exodus 15:16 ff). Number 4 (Exodus 15:20 f) contains Miriam's responsorium. Number 5 (Exodus 15:22-27) treats of Marah and Elim (YHWH proves Himself to be Israel's helper and physician (Exodus 15:25 f) notwithstanding the murmuring of Israel (Exodus 15:24)). Number 6 introduces the last five pericopes, with a designation of the time (Exodus 16:1-36), and describes the miraculous feeding with manna and quails. (The murmuring is particularly emphasized in Exodus 16:2, Exodus 16:7-9, Exodus 16:12. Israel also gathers more than they have been directed to do (Exodus 16:16 f); reserves some for the following day (Exodus 16:19 f); collects some on the Sabbath (Exodus 16:27); YHWH, who in Exodus 16:6-12 alone is mentioned in rapid succession no fewer than ten times, at first does not even utter a word of reproach, and when the Sabbath has been violated He does nothing more than reprove.) Number 7 (Exodus 17:1-7) reports the help of YHWH (Exodus 17:4) at the Waters of Contention (Strife). He even appears on the rock (Exodus 17:6), notwithstanding the murmuring (Exodus 17:2-4, Exodus 17:7). Number 8 (Exodus 17:8-16) describes the victory over the Amalekites, which furnished the occasion for the erection of the memorial altar, called 'YHWH-my-Banner.' Possibly in this connection Joshua (“YHWH helps”) was changed from Hosea (Numbers 13:16). Compare Hengstenberg, Authenthic. des Pentateuches, II, 395 f. Number 9 (Exodus 18:1-12) shows in a constantly changing variety of expressions that emphasis is laid on the impression which the deeds of God in connection with Israel make on Jethro, the father-in-law of Moses, while he was visiting the latter (Exodus 18:1, Exodus 18:8-12). Effective in this connection is also the mention made of the symbolical names of the sons of Moses (Gershom, “I have been a sojourner in a foreign land”; and Eliezer, “The God of my father was my help, and delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh” (Exodus 18:3 f)). Further, the name Mount of God (Exodus 18:5; compare Exodus 18:12) probably is a reminder of the fulfillment of [[Exodus 3:12. Number 10 ([[Exodus 18:13-17) shows how God helps Moses (compare Exodus 18:19) through the advice of Jethro to appoint judges. In this part, too, Exodus 13:17 through Exodus 18:27, we have ten sections, which can easily be arranged in groups of two and two. Thus numbers 1 and 2 are connected by their analogous beginnings (Exodus 13:17, Exodus 13:18 RE; Exodus 14:1, Exodus 14:2 P) and by the cloud of fire (Exodus 13:21 f JE; Exodus 14:19, Exodus 14:24 J); numbers 3 and 4 by the responsive hymn; numbers 5 and 6, which already by the feeling of hunger and thirst are connected in thought, by their reference to the ordinances of YHWH (Exodus 15:25 D; Exodus 16:4 JE ?; Exodus 16:28 R); numbers 7 and 8 by the use made of Moses' staff (Exodus 17:5, Exodus 17:9 JE); numbers 9 and 10 by Jethro's person, and the close connection of their contents in point of time (Exodus 18:13). Further, the Biblical text of this place is clearly presupposed in the list of stations, expressly stated to have been prepared at the command of Moses (Numbers 33). This list, as is acknowledged on all sides, has the characteristics of P; and it takes into consideration not only the portions ascribed to this source, but also the text of JE. Compare Numbers 33:9 (Marah and Elim) with Exodus 15:22-27, and Numbers 33:14 (lack of water in Rephidim) with Exodus 17:1.

(b) Over against the analysis into different sources the following data in detail can also be advanced. In P the last demonstration of the power of YHWH over Pharaoh would be indeed endangered in Exodus 14:4, Exodus 14:15, Exodus 14:21, but afterward would not be related. In Exodus 16:1 we cannot find in the Priestly Code (P), unless we bring in also Exodus 15:27 from JE, how Israel came to be in Elim. On the other hand, in Exodus 16:4 (JE?) the promise of bread from heaven is groundless without the preceding verses, which are attributed to P; and without Exodus 17:1 the Priestly Code (P), we do not know to what the word “there” in Exodus 17:3 belonging to JE refers, and how in Exodus 17:8 JE the Israelites had come to Rephidim. How entirely data taken from the language utterly fail here in establishing the separation of sources we see from the fact that in Exodus the distribution of the different portions and verses between P and E becomes a matter of doubt, and also in Exodus 16 a harmony of view has not been gained as to whether only the Priestly Code (P), or in addition also J, E or JE have contributed to the text. The hymn found in Exodus 15:1, which certainly is an old composition, presupposes passages which are assigned to different sources, and in this way speaks for the unity of the text. Compare Exodus 15:2 with Exodus 14:30 J; Exodus 14:13 JE (?); Exodus 15:3 with Exodus 14:14 JE (?); Exodus 14:25 J; Exodus 14:4 with Exodus 14:9 P; Exodus 14:4 with Exodus 14:7 JE; Exodus 14:8 with Exodus 14:22 EP; Exodus 14:29 P; with Exodus 14:9.

On the other hand, Exodus 14:19 and b cannot be utilized in favor of a division of sources E and J; but rather the analogous structure of this passage presupposes the same author, and there is only indicated what elsewhere is always a presupposition, namely, that God Himself has taken His abode somewhere in the cloud of fire (Exodus 13:21, Exodus 13:22 JE; Exodus 14:24 J; compare Exodus 40:34 P) Just as little are the two commands found in Exodus 14:16 to be divided between P and E and J, one stating what Moses does, and the other what YHWH does, since both rather belong together (compare Exodus 9:22 f with Exodus 9:33; Exodus 10:13). At first glance Exodus 16:6 does not appear to be in its proper place, as Moses and Aaron in Exodus 16:6, Exodus 16:7 have already told Israel what only in Exodus 16:9 is revealed through the appearance of YHWH and His injunction to Moses. But these very verses are in harmony with the character of the whole section (compare under a above), since it is here stated that under all circumstances Israel is to be convinced of this, that YHWH has proven Himself to be YHWH, and has heard their murmuring. In addition, the appearance of YHWH in Exodus 16:10 is clearly announced by [[Exodus 16:7. Accordingly, Exodus 16:9 serve only to confirm and strengthen what is found in [[Exodus 16:6. The fact that not until in Exodus 18:2 JE Jethro brings the wife and the sons of Moses, while the latter himself according to Exodus 4:20 J had taken them along when he joined Israel, finds a satisfactory explanation in Exodus 18:2. He sent them back doubtless because of the conduct of Zipporah on the occasion of the circumcision of her son (Exodus 4:25 J). The fact that Jethro comes to Moses at the Mount of God (Exodus 18:5 JE), while the latter does not arrive at Mt. Sinai until Matthew 19:1 according to P and J, is no contradiction; for by the Mount of God is meant the whole chain of Horeb, which Moses has already reached according to Matthew 17:6 JE; but Mt. Sinai is a single mountain. The special legal ordinances and decisions mentioned in Matthew 18:20 JE before the giving of the law (19ff E and JE) are in perfect harmony with Matthew 15:25 D; Matthew 16:4 JE (?); Matthew 16:28 R.

(4) Exodus 19:1 Through 24:18a

(a) This fourth section contains the conclusion of the covenant at Mount Sinai (compare Matthew 19:5 R at beginning; Matthew 24:7, Matthew 24:8 JE toward the end). The contents cover a period of ten days (compare Matthew 19:10,